Hydrogen production, delivery pathways, and distribution for transportation

Hydrogen is emerging as a promising cleaner fuel for the transportation sector, but its effective distribution to demand centers poses significant challenges. Due to its low volumetric density and high flammability, transporting hydrogen in its gaseous form on a large scale is impractical. This necessitates the use of liquid hydrogen carriers, which are crucial for the safe, efficient, and cost-effective storage and transport of hydrogen. This chapter explores various hydrogen carriers, including ammonia, formic acid, methanol, dibenzyltoluene, dimethylether, oxymethylene ether, and liquid hydrogen, with a focus on their economic and environmental feasibility. The analysis provides a comprehensive review of the production methods, transportation logistics, and hydrogen retrieval processes associated with these carriers. Among them, ammonia stands out as the most economically viable option for low (1.82kt/y) and medium (10kt/y) market penetration scenarios, with levelised costs of hydrogen (LCOH) calculated at $11.39/kg and $7.88/kg, respectively. For scenarios involving high market penetration, liquid hydrogen offers the lowest LCOH at $6.07/kg. Additionally, formic acid is notable for its minimal global warming potential of 0.61kg CO2eq/kg H2, making it the most environmentally friendly hydrogen carrier. To further understand hydrogen distribution dynamics, a hydrogen delivery model is utilized to calculate costs associated with delivering hydrogen to various refueling stations using tube trailers. The findings indicate that storage costs represent the largest portion of overall distribution expenses. Key factors influencing these costs include hydrogen vehicle market penetration, population density, and the distance from production facilities to distribution centers. By addressing both economic and environmental considerations in the development of hydrogen infrastructure, stakeholders can facilitate a more effective transition to cleaner mobility solutions.